“To” vs. “Too” vs. “Two”: Two Ways To Always Remember The Difference

The words to, too, and two sound exactly alike but are used in completely different ways. They are classic examples of what we call homophones—words that are pronounced the same but have different meanings and spellings. Because they’re so similar, they often get mixed up in written language.

In this article, we’ll give you everything you need to make sure you choose the right to, too, or too every time.

Quick summary

The extremely common word to is a preposition that can be used in many different ways, such as to indicate motion or direction toward something, as in Go to the store. The word too is an adverb most commonly meaning “also” (as in I’d like to go, too) or “to an excessive amount or degree” (as in Don’t add too much sugar). The word two is the number 2. The most common mistake involving the three words is using to when it should be too, or vice versa. So when you want to use to, don’t use too many o’s!

to vs. too vs. two

To is a very common word that performs many different functions, such as expressing direction (I’m driving to the office) or contact (Pin it to the wall), indicating an object or recipient (Give it to me), or setting a range (9 to 5) or limit (These go to 11).

Too means “also” (I’m going, too) or “to an excessive degree” (too much). Two is the number 2.

The words are used in very different ways: to is most commonly used as a preposition, while too is an adverb.

Two is a number that can be used as a noun (I have two) or an adjective (two wheels).

When to use to vs. too

The most common mistake involving all three words is using to when it should be too, or vice versa.

Here’s the best way to remember whether the spelling should be to or too: if you mean to, don’t use too many o’s!

You can also remember that too means “also” because an extra o has tagged along, as if it had asked, “Can I come, too?”

to late vs. too late

When something doesn’t happen or someone or something doesn’t arrive or do something in time, we indicate this by using the set phrase too late, in which the adverb too indicates that an amount or degree has been exceeded.

For example:

- I’m sorry, I’m afraid you’re too late.
- It was a case of too little too late.

This doesn’t mean, however, that the words to and late will never appear next to each other in a sentence. It’s uncommon, but it can happen.

For example: When I’m too late for the afternoon matinées, I like to have lunch, shop for a while, and go to late showings.

Examples of how to use to, too, and two in a sentence
- I tried to go to the movie, but I got to the theater too late.
- My friend missed the show, too.
- Tickets and popcorn cost too much anyway.
- We went to get ice cream instead and the two of us both got three scoops—which was two scoops too many!

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These Synonyms For “I Mean” Will Help You Communicate Clearly

I mean, we all know pepperoni pizza is best, right? I mean, come on! The only people who dislike pepperoni are those pineapple lovers who, I mean, wouldn’t know a good pizza if it fell on their head!

While this example is admittedly a little silly, it shows how phrases like I mean can slip into sentences without really adding much to the conversation. There is certainly nothing wrong with that, but it can make your writing and speech a little less formal than you might have intended. So, what other options do we have? There are actually more than you might think!

I mean and other filler words
The phrase I mean is an example of what are known as filler words. Filler words, which go by many other names, are words and phrases that are used in sentences for reasons other than the literal meaning of the words themselves. Some other examples of filler words that are used similarly to I mean include you know, like, well, and just.

Talking about I mean specifically, the phrase is often used as a pause, as an enhancing phrase, or to simply make a sentence longer. Often, filler words don’t serve much purpose at all and can be removed from a sentence without changing its meaning. For example, we can remove I mean from the sentence The movie wasn’t very good, but, I mean, the sequel might be better without changing the meaning at all.

However, filler words aren’t bad. They do have several important uses in casual and informal speech and writing. In speech, filler words give a speaker a chance to slow down and catch their breath, establish a friendly tone with an audience, or give their brain a chance to think about what to say or digest what someone else has said. In writing, they are used to make dialogue sound more natural or to allow a writer to establish an informal voice to try and connect with readers, especially younger readers who use filler words more often than other audiences.

What to do with filler words like I mean
In casual and formal speech/writing, there isn’t anything wrong with using filler words every now and again. In fact, most people agree that using filler words makes speech sound more natural than speech that doesn’t use them at all.

That being said, there are alternatives to using filler words if you think you might be using them just a bit too much in your speech. Let’s look at a few different ways you could handle filler words like I mean.

Remove filler words: The easiest and most direct option is to simply get rid of the filler words entirely. In many situations, the filler words weren’t really doing much in the sentence, so taking them out won’t change what you were trying to say.

Filler word sentence: Benny painted his house pink, and, I mean, I kinda like it.
Filler words removed: Benny painted his house pink, and I kinda like it.
Use a short pause: Rather than slip a filler word or two in there to buy time, you could simply just pause for a second to catch your breath or quickly consider what you want to say. Similar to an enhancing filler word, a pause can also catch someone’s attention and indicate that your next words are important or dramatic.

Replace filler words with adverbs, transitional phrases, or more formal alternatives: Most of the time, there are other words and phrases that can serve the same role as a filler word without making a sentence sound too informal or casual. Let’s take a look at a couple of examples:

Original: You shouldn’t talk about his sister like that. I mean, it’s not nice.
Replaced: You shouldn’t talk about his sister like that. Honestly, it’s not nice.
Original: We could go into the bear cave if, I mean, we had no other options.
Replaced: We could go into the bear cave if it turned out that we had no other options.

Formal alternatives and synonyms for I mean
While filler words are typically not a problem in casual and informal writing and speech, the same can’t be said for formal contexts. In formal writing and speech, filler words are often viewed as making a person seem unprepared, unprofessional, or inexperienced. It is thought that filler words like I mean will make your writing or speech weaker and/or less effective.

That being the case, you’ll typically need to remove I mean completely or swap it out for something else. You can use the following list for some great alternatives for I mean that you can use in your formal writing and speech:

In other words
Putting it another way
To put it another way
Putting it simply
For one thing
That is
That is to say
After all
As a matter of fact
For one thing
For lack of a better word
In a nutshell
We can say that
What I intend to show is that
It is clear to see that
This means that
What I mean to say is
What I mean is
What I am trying to say is

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Highlight Words In Action 3

audit
noun: an official examination and verification of accounts, records, operations, etc.

From the headlines: A recent audit revealed that while Amtrak has made some progress in improving accessibility for disabled passengers, significant upgrades are still needed. The company conducts a detailed review of its operations annually, and accessibility was a key priority this year. According to the audit, most travelers with disabilities favor trains over planes, yet Amtrak has been unsatisfactory in addressing and responding to their complaints.

ballistic
adjective: determined or describable by the laws of motion for projectiles

From the headlines: Researchers discovered that the squirting cucumber, a toxic cousin of the edible kind, can shoot its seeds up to 40 feet at speeds reaching 37 miles per hour. Scientists called the gourd’s connection to its stem “the perfect ballistic angle,” allowing it to propel its seeds great distances. When disturbed, the cucumber bursts open, flinging seeds along with a liquid that boosts their acceleration.

dementia
noun: a condition characterized by progressive impairment of intellectual capacity

From the headlines: Interactive “memory cafés” are helping dementia patients access memories and connect with their loved ones. At 600 locations in the U.S., people with Alzheimer’s and other kinds of cognitive impairment can hear speakers, practice art, listen to music, and participate in activities. A memory café at the National Comedy Center in New York focuses on humor to elicit laughter, memories, and emotional connections. Researchers call it a “brain workout” for people with dementia.

extradite
verb: to give up someone to another state or nation at its request

From the headlines: Ecuador extradited the leader of a drug gang to the United States, where he faces charges of drug and gun trafficking. Last year, José Adolfo Macías Villamar escaped an Ecuadorian prison where he was serving a 34-year sentence. Macías was recaptured in June and delivered into U.S. custody by Ecuador’s National Police. He pleaded not guilty in a Brooklyn, NY, courtroom on July 21 and will be detained until a September trial.

heritage
noun: something handed down from the past, as a tradition

From the headlines: Twenty-six sites were newly added to the UNESCO World Heritage list this week. The renowned list now includes over 1,200 locations recognized for their cultural or historical importance and safeguarded under international law. Among this year’s additions are Bavarian palaces, a Brazilian river canyon, and a sacred mountain in Malawi.

repurpose
verb: to adapt or utilize something for a new purpose

From the headlines: Some of the 55,000 tennis balls used annually at Wimbledon are being repurposed to provide shelter for the UK’s endangered harvest mice. While many balls are sold as souvenirs to support the Wimbledon Foundation, some others are donated to the Wildlife Trusts. Volunteers cut openings in the brightly colored balls and secure them to poles, and the mice later climb up to build their nests inside.

solicitous
adjective: eager, careful, or concerned

From the headlines: After being rejected by his mother, a rare Przewalski’s horse foal found care and comfort from a pony named Alice. The young horse, Marat, had fallen ill and was separated from his mother, who refused to accept him back when zookeepers attempted to return him to her. Alice, whose own newborn filly had recently died, quickly took to the orphaned foal, nuzzling him and allowing him to nurse. Because of the solicitous pony’s devoted care, the rare horse is now thriving.

spelunker
noun: a person who explores caves

From the headlines: Rescuers in Italy freed an injured spelunker who was trapped 130 feet underground. The 63-year-old man was exploring the Abisso Paperino cave system in northwestern Piedmont when he was hurt by falling rocks. A medical team climbed down into the cave to treat the man before rescuers widened the passage with explosives so he could be moved to the surface.

virtuoso
noun: someone who has special knowledge or skill in a field

From the headlines: A new study shows that most dogs are virtuosos at detecting and tracking the eggs of the invasive spotted lanternfly. Researchers at Virginia Tech found that pet pups are experienced in sniffing out the invasive insect and its offspring — nearly as adept at finding the elusive eggs as professional handlers and trained detection dogs. Canine noses, which are thousands of times more sensitive than those of humans, have a stunning knack for accurately identifying spotted lanternfly egg masses.

wily
adjective: crafty or cunning

From the headlines: A wily fox is blamed for stealing thirty-two shoes at Grand Teton National Park this year. In June, the Park Service posted a notice headlined “Wanted for grand theft footwear,” featuring a crafty cartoon fox with a shoe in its mouth. Officials now suspect that visitors are aiding and abetting the sneaky animal by leaving their shoes out for him; new posters scold, “Don’t bait wildlife with belongings.”

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40 Genericized Trademarks You Probably Say (And Use) Every Day

Legally, to trademark something means to make it so that only one company can make money off of something with that name. You might not realize it, but many of the seemingly generic words we use all of the time are or were registered trademarks. This is often a problem for companies who want to avoid their lucrative trademarks being killed by “genericide,” meaning they can no longer claim legal exclusivity to a particular name.

In general, there are two categories of so-called “genericized trademarks.” Sometimes, a trademark is legally abandoned. This means, for example, that any company can make a bouncy toy called a trampoline. However, a lot of common words are still legally trademarked, which means only one company can use that name. For example, to avoid getting Nickelodeon in trouble with licensing deals, Spongebob and friends have never heard of a Frisbee and must instead play a rousing game of “small plastic disc that you throw.” (Of course, Spongebob wryly notes, “If only small plastic disc that you throw had a shorter, catchier name.”)

The following list contains 40 common words that have actually been trademarked at some point. The first six have been legally abandoned, meaning they are now generic words. The rest, however, are still on the books, and so you will need to be careful if you ever think about using them to make money.

If you want to learn more about trademarks and other corporate symbols, check out our handy guide here.

aspirin
Last owner: Bayer AG

The word aspirin is a combination of acetyl, spirea, and the suffix -in that is commonly used in the names of many drugs.

heroin
Last owner: Bayer AG

The drug heroin is said to have been named for the German word heroisch, which translates to “heroic.” It is often thought that the name was inspired by the euphoric feelings a person has when taking this now illegal drug.

escalator
Last owner: Otis Elevator Company

The escalator was named by patent owner Charles Seeberger, who is believed to have combined the English word elevator with the Latin word scala, meaning “stairs.”

granola
Last owners: Our Home Granula Company (granula) and Kellogg’s (granola)

Originally called granula, granola was invented by James Caleb Jackson, who is also often credited as the inventor of dry cereal. It is thought that Jackson took the name either from the English word granular (“grainy”) or the Latin grānum, meaning “grain.”

Saran wrap
Last Owner: S.C. Johnson & Son, Inc.

Saran wrap was originally created by the Dow Chemical Company in 1933. The saran in Saran wrap comes from a combination of the first names of Dow employee John Reilly’s daughter and wife, Sarah and Ann.

trampoline
Last Owner: Griswold-Nissen Trampoline & Tumbling Company

According to inventor George Nissen, the trampoline’s name was inspired by the Spanish word trampolín, which means “diving board.”

AstroTurf
Owner: Sport Group

According to Sport Group, Astroturf is named for the Houston Astrodome, where it was first used as a grass replica. The Astrodome’s name comes from the baseball team that plays there, the Houston Astros.

Band-Aid
Owner: Johnson & Johnson

Band-Aid adhesive bandages were invented by Earle Dickinson in 1920 for his wife, Josephine. Although we don’t know for certain, the name is most likely a combination of the words bandage and aid.

Bubble Wrap
Owner: Sealed Air Corporation

Bubble Wrap was invented in 1957 by Alfred Fielding and Marc Chavannes, who originally intended to use it as wallpaper. The name is most likely a combination of the words bubble and wrap.

Frisbee
Owner: Wham-O

The name Frisbee was inspired by an Old Connecticut Bakery, the Frisbie Pie Company. Allegedly, college students had popularly referred to Wham-O’s Pluto Platter toys as “Frisbies,” which would motivate the toymaker to change the name.

Hacky Sack
Owner: Wham-O

The game of Hacky Sack, called footbag by anyone who isn’t Wham-O, was invented by John Stalberger and Mike Mitchell in 1972. Allegedly, the two friends would say “Let’s hack the sack” before playing the game, which would be the inspiration for their trademark.

Hula-Hoop
Owner: Wham-O

The Hula-Hoop was patented by Wham-O in 1963. As you could probably guess, the hoop-shaped toy was named after the Hawaiian hula dance because of the hip movements needed to keep the toy from falling to the ground.

Jacuzzi
Owner: Jacuzzi Inc.

The Jacuzzi is named after Italian inventor Candido Jacuzzi, who invented the whirlpool bath in 1949.

Jeep
Owner: Chrysler Group LLC

Fascinatingly, even the current owner of the Jeep trademark, Chrysler, is unsure of where the name originally came from. The most popular theory is that the vehicle was named after Eugene the Jeep, a character from the Popeye series of comic strips.

Jet Ski
Owner: Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd.

According to Kawasaki, the first Jet Ski was developed in 1972 based on the designs of American inventor Clayton Jacobson II. It seems likely that the name Jet Ski uses the words jet and ski to reference how the vehicle quickly skates across the surface of water.

JumboTron
Owner: Sony Corporation

The Sony JumboTron debuted in 1985, but similar large screens had been developed by Japanese companies as early as 1980. The name is likely a combination of the adjective jumbo, meaning very large, and the combining form -tron, which is sometimes used in the names of electronics.

Kleenex
Owner: Kimberly-Clark Corporation

Kleenex brand tissues debuted in 1924. According to the Kleenex website, the name Kleenex is a combination of an alternate spelling of the word clean (“Kleen”) and the ending “ex” from Kotex, a feminine hygiene brand name still owned by the Kimberly-Clark Corporation.

Mace
Owner: Mace Security International, Inc.

The brand of pepper spray known as Mace or Chemical Mace was invented in 1965. According to both the Mace company and newspaper reports from the time, the name Mace was inspired by the fact that getting sprayed in the face with Mace was said to be as unpleasant as being hit in the face with a medieval mace, a spiked weapon.

Magic Marker
Owner: Bic Corporation

The name Magic Marker is said to have been coined by Sidney Rosenthal, who is also credited with inventing the felt-tip pen in 1952. According to Crayola, Magic Marker was inspired by the fact that the “magical” device could make marks on any surface.

Muzak
Owner: Muzak LLC

The creation of Muzak is credited to—or perhaps blamed on—Major General George O. Squier, who developed a way to transmit music through electric wires in the 1920s. According to most sources, Squier named his company Muzak by combining the first syllable of the word music with the end syllable of Kodak, a major American photography company.

Onesie
Owner: Gerber Childrenswear LLC

Although Gerber legally only owns the trademark of the plural Onesies, they have successfully (and aggressively) enforced their trademark over the singular onesie as well. The name is a combination of the word one, referring to a one-piece garment, and the cutesy-sounding suffix -sie.

Ping-pong
Owner: Indian Industries, Inc.

Surprisingly, the trademarked name ping-pong may actually be older than the generic table tennis, which is the official name of the game. The name ping-pong has been used since at least the 1800s, and the name was inspired by the sound that the ball makes when hit with paddles.

Plexiglas
Owner: Trinseo

The origin of the name Plexiglas, often incorrectly written as plexiglass, is unknown. According to the Plexiglas website, Plexiglas was named after one of inventor Otto Röhm’s earlier products known as “Plexigum,” but beyond that the trail goes cold.

Popsicle
Owner: Conopco, Inc.

The idea of “frozen ice juice on a stick” is credited to Frank Epperson. Epperson originally named the treat after himself and called it an “Epsicle” with the “-sicle” coming from icicle. Epperson’s children were not fans of the name and instead called them “Pop’s sicles.” In the end, Epperson sided with his children and patented his invention as the Popsicle.

Post-it Note
Owner: Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company (3M)

3M credits the creation of the Post-it Note to scientists Spencer Silver and Art Fry. The name refers to the fact that the adhesive paper notes can be posted (stuck) wherever you want. An added bit of legal fun: 3M also legally owns the “Canary Yellow” color that many Post-it Notes typically have.

Q-tip
Owner: Conopco, Inc.

The cotton swabs known as Q-tips originally had the very unmarketable name of “Baby Gays.” The name was quickly switched to Q-tips in 1926. According to the Q-tips website, the Q stands for quality, and the tip refers to the cotton tip at the end of the swab.

Realtor
Owner: National Association of Realtors

Legally, only people who belong to the National Association of Realtors can use the trademarked name Realtor. The term Realtor is credited to Charles N. Chadbourn, and it is a combination of the word realty, meaning real estate, and the suffix -or, indicating a person related to something (in this case, real estate).

Rollerblade
Owner: Tecnica Group S.P.A.

This trademarked brand of roller skates was created by inventor Scott Olson in the 1980s. The name Rollerblade references the fact that Olson’s roller skates were based on ice skates with wheels instead of blades.

Sheetrock
Owner: United States Gypsum Company

The particular brand of drywall or gypsum boards known as Sheetrock seems to have a straightforward name: Sheetrock makes boards (“sheets”) of gypsum, a mineral (a “rock”).

Skee-Ball
Owner: Bay Tek Entertainment, Inc.

The game of Skee-Ball was invented by Joseph Fourestier Simpson in the early 1900s. The name is a combination of the word ball and skee (an uncommon variant of the word ski) in reference to the ski jump-like ramp that the balls roll off of.

Styrofoam
Owner: DDP Specialty Electronic Materials Us, Inc.

Styrofoam’s name is a reference to the chemistry used to make it. Styrofoam is a plastic foam made from polystyrene.

Super Glue
Owner: The Original Super Glue Corporation/Pacer Technology

Super Glue was named by its inventor Dr. Harry Coover, who discovered it in 1942. The marketable name combines the word glue with the word super, referencing how incredibly sticky it is.

Taser
Owner: Axon Enterprise Inc.

The Taser was invented in the 1970s by Jack Cover. The name Taser is an acronym of “Tom A. Swift Electric Rifle,” a reference to the Tom Swift series of books about an inventor that Cover enjoyed as a child.

Tarmac
Owner: Tarmac

The name Tarmac is a shortening of tarmacadam, an asphalt-like paving material made of tar and crushed stones.

Teflon
Owner: The Chemours Company

The name Teflon is a short, marketable word that refers to what Teflon is made of: polytetrafluoroethylene.

Velcro
Owner: Velcro IP Holdings LLC

Velcro was invented and named by Swiss engineer George de Mestrel. De Mestrel got the name Velcro from a combination of the French words velour and crochet, referencing the fact that his new material resembled “hooked velvet.”

Xerox
Owner: Xerox Corporation

The name Xerox comes from the word xerography, a specific type of printing technology. Xerography is formed from xero-, meaning “dry,” and –graphy, which denotes a form of artistry.

Zamboni
Owner: Frank J. Zamboni & Company, Inc.

The ice surfacing machine known as a Zamboni is named after its Italian inventor, Frank Zamboni.

The last two names on our list are fairly modern and are both closely associated with large companies that aggressively protect their trademarks. However, they are both commonly used as generic verbs, which may make it less likely that future generations know who the trademark owners are.

Google
Owner: Alphabet Inc. (Google’s new parent company)

The name Google is based on a misspelling of the mathematical term googol, a number equal to one with 100 zeros. The story goes that Google developer Larry Page suggested the name “Googol” for a new search engine to fellow Stanford graduate Sean Anderson. Anderson misspelled the word as “google” when checking if the domain name was taken, and Page preferred this original name instead.

Photoshop
Owner: Adobe Inc

The Photoshop software was created by Thomas and John Knoll in 1987. It is unknown exactly why the program that was originally named “Display,” and then “ImagePro,” was renamed to “PhotoShop” before it was sold to Adobe, although the name does seem to refer to the fact that the program functions as a kind of photography workshop.

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Doxing, Sealioning, and Rage Farming: The Language of Online Harassment and Disinformation

We know all too well that the internet isn’t all fun memes and hamster videos. The darker side of online life is home to trolls, spammers, and many varieties of toxic behavior, spanning from tactics intended to harass one person to nefarious attempts to spread harmful disinformation as widely as possible. For many of the practices that play out exclusively online, specialized terms have emerged, allowing us to name and shine a light on some of these actions—and their real-life consequences.

sealioning
Sealioning is a specific type of trolling. The general term trolling refers to harassing someone online with the intent of getting a (negative) reaction out of them. In the case of sealioning, a troll will relentlessly harass someone with questions or requests for evidence in an attempt to upset them and make their position or viewpoint seem weak or unreasonable. Sealioning is often disguised as earnest curiosity or interest in debate, but the real goal is to troll someone until they get angry or upset.

Sealioning is a common trolling tactic used on social media. For example, a Twitter user might say that they support a higher minimum wage. In response, a sealioning troll might repeatedly and relentlessly ask them for sources that would prove the merits of higher pay scales or demand that they write detailed explanations of how increased wages have affected the economies of the world. The troll will not stop until the other person angrily lashes out (or blocks them), thus allowing the troll to paint themselves as the victim and then claim to have won the “debate” over the issue. Those who engage in sealioning are never actually interested in legitimately debating—the point is to harass and attempt to diminish.

doxing
Doxing, or doxxing, is the act of publishing someone’s personal information or revealing their identity without their consent. The term comes from the word docs (short for documents). Doxing is often done in an attempt to intimidate someone by invading their privacy and causing them to fear for their safety, especially due to the threats they often receive after having been doxed.

In many cases, doxing involves revealing the identity and information of people who were otherwise anonymous or using an alias. For example, a hacker might post the real name and home address of a popular streamer or influencer who is otherwise known by a fake name. Sometimes, celebrities are the target of doxing. In one prominent incident in 2013, several high-profile celebrities, including Beyoncé and Kim Kardashian, were the victims of doxing after a hacker publicly revealed their addresses, social security numbers, and financial documents online. In a more recent instance, a Twitch gaming streamer known online as XQc was doxed and then repeatedly targeted with the practice known as swatting.

swatting
The term swatting refers to the practice of initiating a law enforcement response on an unsuspecting victim. Though swatting results in real-world actions, it often originates online or with the aid of digital means, such as by using software to anonymously contact 911 and report a threat or illegal activity at the target’s residence. The practice is especially used to target public figures. The word is based on the term SWAT, referring to the special police tactical units that respond to emergencies. Obviously, swatting is extremely dangerous due to the unpredictable nature of such scenarios, when law enforcement officials believe they are entering a highly dangerous situation.

brigading
In online contexts, the word brigading refers to a practice in which people join together to perform a coordinated action, such as rigging an online poll, downvoting or disliking content, or harassing a specific individual or group. Brigading is similar to the online practice known as dogpiling, which involves many people joining in on the act of insulting or harassing someone. Unlike dogpiling, which may be spontaneous, brigading typically follows a coordinated plan.

Both the practice and the name for it are often traced to the forum website Reddit, where brigading (which is explicitly against the site’s rules) typically involves one community joining together to mass downvote content or to disrupt a community by posting a large amount of spam, abuse, or trolling comments. For example, a person who posts a negative review of a TV show may be targeted by users of that show’s fan forum, whose brigading might consist of messaging the original poster with abusive comments.

firehosing
Firehosing is a propaganda tactic that involves releasing a large amount of false information in a very short amount of time. Due to the resources often needed to pull off such an expansive disinformation strategy, the term firehosing is most often used to refer to the alleged actions of large organizations or governments.

For example, the term firehosing has been used to describe Russian propaganda during the 2014 annexation of Crimea and the 2022 invasion of Ukraine; Chinese propaganda in response to reporting on Uyghur Muslims in 2021; and numerous incidents in which President Donald Trump and members of his administration were accused of spreading false information.

astroturfing
Astroturfing is a deception tactic in which an organized effort is used to create the illusion of widespread, spontaneous support for something. The goal of astroturfing is to give the false impression that something has wide support from a passionate grassroots campaign when in reality the effort is (secretly) motivated by a person or group’s personal interest. Like firehosing, the term astroturfing is often used in the context of large organizations and governments due to the resources needed to perform it.

For example, the term has been repeatedly applied to the deceptive information practices allegedly used by the Russian government, such as attempts to create the perception of universal support for Russian president Vladimir Putin or to create the illusion of widespread opposition to Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Elsewhere, astroturfing has been used by the media and public figures to describe attempts by businesses and special interest groups to falsely create the impression of popular support, such as for fracking, vaping, and denial of the existence of climate change.

rage farming
Rage farming is a slang term that refers to the practice of posting intentionally provocative political content in order to take advantage of a negative reaction that garners exposure and media attention.

The term rage farming emerged in early 2022, first being used to describe a social media tactic used by conservative groups, such as the Texas Republican Party. The term was applied to the practice of purposefully posting provocative memes and other content in order to anger liberal opponents. The word farming in the term refers to its apparent goal of generating a large amount of critical and angry comments in hopes that the negative response draws media exposure and attention and attracts support—and donations—from like-minded people.

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The Curious Name Origins of World-Famous Vacation Destinations

As we enter the summer, you might be planning a big trip to have some fun during your summer vacation. If you want to gallivant across the globe, there’s no shortage of beautiful places full of interesting history to explore. And it’s worth noting. Many cities around the world have fascinating stories about where their names came from. Before you finalize summer travel plans, we’re passing along some of the cool stories about the origins of the names of cities around the world.

London, England
Historical sources trace London’s name back to when the Romans first founded it in 43 CE and named the new settlement Londinium. Beyond that, though, there is heated debate on where the Romans got this name from. One common theory says that the name comes from King Lud, a mythical pre-Roman British king. Another theory suggests that the Romans took the name from the Celtic word Plowonida, which means “from two roots.”

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Rio de Janeiro translates to “January River” in English despite the fact that the city is located next to a bay and not a river. The popular story goes that when Portuguese explorers found the Guanabara Bay in the early 1500s, they mistook it for a large river and named the new settlement there after the “river.”

Cuzco, Peru
The name of the city of Cuzco, or Cusco, comes from the Quechua language and is said to mean “navel.” The city of Cuzco was the central city and the capital of the Inca empire. Cuzco is still often referred to as “The Navel of the Earth” to highlight its historical importance.

Mumbai, India
For the Marathi speakers who live there, the city of Mumbai takes its name from Mumbadevi, the patron goddess of the city. When India was under the control of the British Empire, the city was known as Bombay. The name Bombay is said to be an anglicized version of the earlier Portuguese name Bom Bahia, which meant “good little bay.”

Cairo, Egypt
The official Arabic name of the city known in English as Cairo is Al-Qāhirah. This name translates to “The Victorious” or “The Conqueror.” This powerful name is said to refer to Caliph al-Muʿizz, who established the city as the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate that would control Egypt for centuries afterward.

Istanbul, Turkey
The city of Istanbul can trace its name back to the Ottoman Empire. Originally known as Constantinople (for Roman emperor Constantine the Great), the city belonged to the Eastern Roman Empire but was captured by Ottoman forces in 1453. Although the Ottomans didn’t officially rename Constantinople, citizens outside the city began to refer to it using the Turkish name Istanpolin, based on a Greek phrase eis tan polin meaning “into the city.” Going back even further, the city was known as Byzantium. It is thought that the city was originally named for Byzas, a legendary Greek king who is said to have founded the city.

Phnom Penh, Cambodia
According to legend, Phnom Penh was founded by a woman known as Lady Penh or Duan Penh. During her life, Lady Penh built a shrine on a hill. That shrine, referred to as Wat Phnom, is said to still be standing today. Cambodia’s capital Phnom Penh takes its name both from Wat Phnom and Lady Penh.

Bangkok, Thailand
In Thai, the city of Bangkok is officially known by a much longer name that is often shortened to Krung Thep, which translates to “city of angels.” The city’s official name, at 168 letters, actually holds the record for the longest place name in the world. The exact origin of the English Bangkok is disputed, but it may be based on native Thai words for “city” and an olive-like fruit (makok).

Jerusalem, Israel
The holy city of Jerusalem, known as Yerushalayim in Hebrew and Al-Quds in Arabic, has a long history of religious prominence and conflict. The origins of the ancient city are still being researched today, but evidence says that the Egyptians knew of the city as early as the 14th century BCE. They referred to the city as Urusalim, a Semitic name that seems to translate to “city of Shalim,” referring to the Canaanite god Shalim, also known as Shalem or Salim.

Marrakesh, Morocco
The origin of the name of Marrakesh or Marrakech is still disputed today. The most popular interpretation says that the name comes from the Berber language and means “city of God” from the Berber amur akush.

Johannesburg, South Africa
It is agreed that Johannesburg, the largest city of South Africa, was likely named after a person or multiple named Johan or Johannes. Who exactly this person or these people were is still a matter of debate. Some popular picks include Johann Rissik and Christiaan Johannes Joubert, two early surveyors of southern Africa, and Stephanus Johannes Paulus Kruger, a president of the South African Republic.

Of course, these are just some of the name tales of the many great vacation destinations around the world. There are many other cities out there with fascinating stories on where their names came from. Personally, we might book our next trip to Wales and learn about the story behind Llanfair­pwllgwyngyll­gogery­chwyrn­drobwll­llan­tysilio­gogo­goch … after we spend the summer learning how to pronounce it first!

สงวนลิขสิทธิ์ © 2025 AAKKHRA & Co.

Examples Of Every Letter Being Silent, With The Exception Of…

You probably already know that English features many, many words with silent letters—letters that appear in the word but aren’t pronounced and often make us wonder what they are even doing there. For example, the letter B in the words debt and thumb. Or whatever the heck is going on in the words colonel, queue, and bourgeoisie.

Even though you’re probably already familiar with silent letters, you might not realize just how many words in English actually use them. To demonstrate just how common these silent letters actually are, we quietly gathered up a list of as many examples of silent letters as we could find.

It should be noted that silent letters often depend on pronunciation and regional accents, which we have noted at points in our list.

Silent A words

The letter A is silent in a bunch of words that include -ea, such as bread, dread, head, thread, and spread. The letter A also remains quiet in a bunch of adverbs that end in -ically, such as basically, stoically, logically, frantically, fanatically, magically, and tragically. A few words also have a silent A at the beginning that doesn’t seem to do much of anything, such as aisle and aesthetic.

Silent B words

The letter B likes to silently follow the letter M at the end of many words, such as in dumb, plumb, crumb, thumb, numb, succumb, lamb, limb, climb, tomb, comb, bomb, and womb. The letter B also seems to also slip in silently before the letter T in words like debt, doubt, and subtle.

Silent C words

When it comes to the letter C, it seems to remain silent when it follows the letter S. There are many examples of this, such as science, scissors, scent, ascent, crescent, descent, descend, disciple, scene, obscene, fluorescent, abscess, fascinate, and muscle.

The silent C also shows up in a few other weird words such as czar, acquire, indict, and yacht. Yacht is so fancy that it even slips a silent H in there too.

Silent D words

The letter D is silent in some words that pair it up with the letter G, as in bridge, ridge, edge, ledge, and hedge. It also doesn’t have much to say in some pronunciations of the words handsome and handkerchief. Lastly, the first D in the word Wednesday seems to have taken the day off.

Silent E words

The letter E quietly resides in the middle of the word vegetable. However, there are tons and tons more silent E‘s out there. The letter E often goes unpronounced at the end of many, many words that include but are certainly not limited to the words imagine, plaque, brute, debate, excite, make, due, true, crime, grace, goose, axe, die, dye, bike, eke, pie, use, toe, cage, dude, mute, candle, and adore.

Silent F words

This one will depend on how you pronounce the word fifth, which has two common pronunciations: one in which both F‘s are pronounced and one in which the second F is not (as if it were spelled “fith”). As far as we know, this silent F pronunciation of fifth is the only example in English of a word with a silent F.

Silent G words

For whatever reason, the letter G likes to stay quiet when it is paired up with the letter N. Examples include gnaw, gnarly, gnostic, gnat, gnash, gnome, champagne, cologne, align, assign, benign, sign, feign, foreign, and reign. The letter G also often keeps quiet when it sees the letter H, as in sigh, high, sight, light, bright, night, fight, though, and thorough.

Silent H words

We have already listed quite a few words with silent Hs but there are plenty more to find. The letter H is sometimes silent when placed at the beginning of words such as hour, heir, honor, herb, homage, and honest. The letter H is silent in many words where it follows the letter C, such as anchor, archive, chaos, character, Christmas, charisma, chemical, choreography, chorus, choir, and echo. The letter H is also silent in words where it follows the letter W, as in when, where, which, why, whine, whistle, and white. Finally, the letter H doesn’t seem to be doing much at all in the words ghost and rhyme.

Silent I words

Compared to the other vowels, the letter I seems to love to be heard. We could only find a few words that feature a silent I, such as business, suit, and fruit.

Silent J words

Based on our, ahem, totally professional research, the only English word to have a silent J is … marijuana. And interestingly, it’s tough to find a language with a silent J. J just loves to be heard.

Silent K words

The letter K is silent at the beginning of lots of words where it is followed by the letter N. Some examples of this include knife, knight, knob, knock, knit, knuckle, knee, kneel, knick-knack, knowledge, know, knot, and knoll.

Silent L words

The letter L is silent in the words including should, could, would, half, calf, chalk, talk, walk, folk, and yolk. The silent L in the word salmon is also pretty fishy.

Silent M words

After looking high and low, the only words we could find with a silent M are ones that begin with mn, such as mnemonic and similarly derived terms, but maybe we just need something to help us remember others.

Silent N words

The letter N seems to be shy around the letter M as it doesn’t speak up in words like autumn, column, condemn, solemn, and hymn.

Silent O words

The letter O is silent in some words that pair it with fellow vowels E and U, such as people, jeopardy, leopard, rough, tough, enough, trouble, and double.

Silent P words

The letter P is often silent in words that pair it with the letter S, as in psalm, psyche, psychology, pseudoscience, pseudonym, and corps. It is also silent in many technical words that include the prefixes pneumato-, pneumano-, and pneumo-, such as pneumonia and pneumatic. The letter P is also silent in a few other oddball words such as raspberry, receipt, and pterodactyl.

Silent Q words

The letter Q mostly makes its presence felt whenever it appears. The word lacquer seems to be the sole example of a word with a silent Q that we could manage to find.

Silent R words

Besides the common pronunciation of the word February that leaves out the first R, the existence (or nonexistence) of silent R’s largely depends on whether you have a rhotic or non-rhotic accent. For example, a person with a non-rhotic Boston accent will likely employ several silent R’s following vowels in the sentence My sister parked her car near Harvard Yard.

Silent S words

The Silent S appears in several different words, including island, isle, aisle, apropos, debris, bourgeois, and viscount.

Silent T words

One pattern we could find for the Silent T occurs when it is paired with the letter L in words like whistle, bristle, thistle, bustle, hustle, and castle. The letter T is also silent in a lot of French loanwords such as ballet, gourmet, rapport, ricochet, buffet, crochet, valet, debut, and beret. Besides that, the silent T appears in a random assortment of other words, such as asthma, mortgage, tsunami, soften, listen, fasten, glisten, and moisten.

Silent U words

U must get nervous around G‘s because it can’t seem to say anything when it comes after them in words like guard, guide, guilt, guitar, guess, disguise, guest, guilt, guise, baguette, dialogue, monologue, league, colleague, rogue, vague, and tongue. You can also find a silent U in words like build, biscuit, circuit, and laugh.

Silent V words

We looked as hard as we could for words with a silent V, but we sadly came up empty. Some sources claim that V is the only letter in English that is never silent, and we couldn’t find any examples to prove that claim wrong. Poetic contractions like e’er and ne’er do cut it right out, though.

Silent W words

The letter W gets tongue-tied around the letter R and is often silent when placed before it in words like wrack, wrench, wreath, wrestle, wrangle, wrist, wrong, wring, wrought, write, writ, wrinkle, wraith, wrap, wrath, wretch, wreck, writhe, wry, wrapper, and playwright. A handful of other words also feature a silent W, such as answer, sword, two, and who.

Silent X words

Unless we made an embarrassing mistake, we are pretty sure the letter X is silent in the words faux and faux pas. As it is in other French-derived words, such as roux and doux and some plurals, like choux and reseaux (the plurals of chou and reseau, respectively).

Silent Y words

The letter Y is another one that depends on pronunciation to be silent. For example, one pronunciation of the word beyond [ bee-ond ] could be considered to contain a silent Y.

Silent Z Words

A handful of French loanwords have that special je ne sais quoi of a silent Z, including rendezvous and laissez-faire.

สงวนลิขสิทธิ์ © 2025 AAKKHRA & Co.

How To Refer To Little People: The Terms To Know

Most people are familiar with the use of the term little people in reference to people who have dwarfism—people whose short stature is the result of a medical or genetic condition. But it’s not the only term.

In this article, we’ll note the range of terms and preferences and explain some of the notable reasons behind these preferences.

Content warning: The end of this article includes an explicit mention of an offensive slur. As part of our mission to educate about words and their impact on people, we believe it is important to include information about this word, especially since some people may be unaware that it is considered offensive.

What is dwarfism?

An important aspect of understanding dwarfism is understanding that dwarfism is a general term and doesn’t refer to one specific medical condition that causes short stature. Instead, the term is used to refer to shortness of stature that can be caused by many different medical or genetic conditions.

Generally, an adult is considered to have dwarfism if they have a height measured at 4 feet 10 inches or lower.

What causes dwarfism?

The most common cause of dwarfism is achondroplasia, a condition that impairs the growth of bones and causes an atypical skeletal structure, especially in the limbs. While this condition can be inherited, it is often caused by genetic mutations. This means that parents who do not have achondroplasia can have children who do, and parents who do have achondroplasia can have children who don’t.
What do people with dwarfism prefer to be called?

First, remember that discussing a condition or physical difference is in many cases unnecessary. Most of the time, the first thing you should ask a person is their name.

Of course, it is sometimes necessary and important to use generally identifying terms, such as when discussing accessibility in the workplace or a person’s membership in a community. And whenever such things are being discussed, it’s important to use the terms that people themselves prefer when referring to themselves and being referred to.

Because preferences vary widely, the best approach is always to ask. Preferences may also overlap—some people may use certain terms interchangeably or be OK with multiple terms.

Here are some of the most common and widely accepted terms.

dwarf and person with dwarfism

Some people with dwarfism prefer to be referred to—and to refer to themselves—with the standalone term dwarf. In contrast, some people prefer the term person with dwarfism, an example of what’s called person-first language, which is terminology that places the person before a mention of a specific characteristic (usually literally using the word person or the plural people as the first words in an identifying phrase). Preferring to be referred to as a dwarf is an example of what’s called identity-first language, which places emphasis on a characteristic that a person considers an inherent part of their identity.

Both terms are considered catch-all terms that encompass all medical and genetic causes of dwarfism. Both versions are also commonly used in the medical community when discussing dwarfism.

While organizations within the community often use such terms in discussing their members and those they advocate for, such terms are not commonly used in names of such organizations (though there are exceptions).

It’s important to note that some people may not be comfortable using either term for a variety of reasons. One reason is that they may consider them as too technical outside of a medical context. Furthermore, some people may prefer to avoid the word dwarf’s associations with characters in folklore and pop culture (which in many cases have had the effect of demeaning people of short stature).

little person, little people

Out of all of the terms that refer to people with dwarfism, the straightforward little person (and its plural little people) is now likely the most common and the one most people are familiar with.

Around the world, many organizations focused on people with dwarfism use the term little people in their name and in their communications, including Little People of America, Little People UK, and Little People of British Columbia.

The increase in the awareness of this terminology is often attributed in part to the high visibility of such terms in notable aspects of pop culture, such as the title of the long-running TV series Little People, Big World.

Although such terms are now widely used and preferred, keep in mind that personal preferences vary.

person of short stature and short-statured person

Although less common, the terms person of short stature and short-statured person (sometimes unhyphenated as short statured) are also used (along with their plural forms that use people). Preferences around person-first or identity-first constructions also apply in this case.

These phrases are used by groups and organizations focused on little people, often interchangeably with previously mentioned options. They are sometimes also used in the names of such organizations, such as Short Statured People of Australia and Short Stature Scotland.

Which term should I use?

Remember that specifying whether or not a person has dwarfism is often completely unnecessary. See the person first—and don’t assume that their size defines them. Most of the time, the first thing you should ask a person is their name.

In cases when it’s important to identify someone as being short in stature in the ways we’ve discussed here, all of the terms we’ve listed can be suitable. Many are often used interchangeably. Little person and little people are the most common. But no preference is universal, so be sure to respect a person’s preferences.

Offensive terms

Although preferences vary around the terms that have been discussed thus far, there are some terms that should never be used. Notably, one term considered extremely offensive is the disparaging word midget. Like other slurs, its explicit mention is often avoided in discussions about the term by instead using the phrase the M word. (We feel it is important to explicitly state it here so as to leave no confusion about which word we’re referring to.)

Though the term once came to be used by some as a way to distinguish various forms of dwarfism, members of the community and advocacy organizations now note that its history is rooted in demeaning usage—and that it should be avoided altogether.

That push for avoidance and elimination of use also extends to contexts in which the term has traditionally been applied not to people but to things in reference to their small size (such as certain types of racing cars, as one example).

สงวนลิขสิทธิ์ © 2025 AAKKHRA & Co.

Gelato vs. Ice Cream vs. Frozen Yogurt vs. Sherbet vs. Sorbet: Get The Scoop On The Difference

You scream, I scream, we all scream for… wait, is that ice cream or gelato? Or frozen yogurt? And what’s the deal with sherbet and sorbet? Are all of these things ice cream, too?

Don’t get a brain freeze. We’ll break down the similarities and technical differences between these frozen treats—based on ingredients and how they’re made—in addition to dipping into the overlap of the terms in casual use.

Join as we serve up the answers to these questions and more:

What defines ice cream?
What is the difference between gelato and ice cream?
How is ice cream different from frozen yogurt?
Is sherbet a kind of ice cream?
What is the difference between sherbet and sorbet?
How is gelato different from sorbet?
What is the difference between sorbet and ice cream?

Quick summary

We casually call a lot of frozen treats ice cream. But according to US technical guidelines, ice cream must contain 10 percent milk fat. It’s typically made with milk, cream, flavorings, and sometimes egg yolk. Gelato is similar to ice cream but typically contains less cream and air. Frozen yogurt uses yogurt as its primary ingredient rather than milk and cream. Unlike ice cream, sherbet uses fruit juice or fruit purée as its main ingredient and typically only has a small amount of dairy. Sorbet also uses fruit juice or purée as its main ingredient, but it doesn’t contain any dairy products or eggs.

What is the difference between gelato and ice cream?

Generally, the term ice cream refers to a creamy frozen dessert that’s made with dairy fats, sugar, and sometimes egg yolks. However, ice cream is often casually used as a catchall term to refer to all kinds of frozen desserts, including many of the ones that we’ll compare here, some of which do not contain cream or any dairy products.

That being said, the definition of ice cream is often much more narrow in technical use. In fact, according to US law, in order for a food to be considered ice cream in the US it must contain at least 10 percent milk fat. The legal definition also touches on the inclusion of flavoring ingredients like sugar or artificial sweeteners and optional dairy products, such as cream, butter, buttermilk, and skim milk. Typically, egg yolks are also allowed as an ingredient. Ice cream typically contains a lot of cream in order to achieve the required milk fat percentage.

Gelato is an Italian-style dessert that usually contains many of the same ingredients as ice cream. It’s often considered a type of ice cream—sometimes referred to as “Italian ice cream.”

Compared to ice cream, though, gelato usually contains less cream and has a lower milk fat percentage. Additionally, the slower churning process of gelato causes it to be infused with less air than ice cream. All of this means that gelato tends to have a silkier texture than ice cream.

frozen yogurt vs. ice cream

Frozen yogurt (popularly nicknamed fro-yo) and ice cream are both typically made from dairy products and sugar. However, the main ingredients in ice cream are milk and cream and the main ingredient in frozen yogurt is, unsurprisingly, yogurt. Under certain technical requirements, ice cream must have at least 10 percent milk fat, but those requirements don’t apply to frozen yogurt. The fat percentage of frozen yogurt depends on what type of milk was used to make the yogurt in it.

Is sherbet ice cream?

Sherbet is a creamy frozen dessert made mainly from fruit juice or fruit purée—it typically contains only small amounts of dairy products, egg whites, and/or gelatin. (Sherbet is pronounced [ shur-bit ], but many people say [ shur-burt ], leading to spelling sherbert becoming increasingly common.)

Sherbet is technically not ice cream, even though they both can contain fruit and dairy products. The big difference is that sherbet’s main ingredient is fruit juice or purée, while ice cream’s main ingredients are typically milk and cream. Still, they’re close enough that many people likely consider sherbet a type of ice cream.

sherbet vs. sorbet

As we just learned, sherbet typically contains only a small amount of dairy products and/or eggs. Sorbet (pronounced [ sawr-bey ]) is a creamy frozen concoction made from fruit juice or fruit purée that does not contain any dairy products or eggs. Sorbet is usually a dessert, but not always—it’s sometimes served between courses as a palate cleanser.

The words look similar because they’re ultimately based on the same root—the Turkish şerbet, from the Persian sharbat, from the Arabic sharbah, meaning “a drink.”

gelato vs. sorbet

By now, you know that gelato traditionally uses milk and cream as its main ingredients, and that sorbet primarily contains fruit juice or fruit purée and does not use dairy products or eggs. Sorbet is less creamy.

sorbet vs. ice cream

The difference between ice cream and sorbet is also based on whether or not dairy is used. Technically speaking, ice cream always contains cream and/or milk as its main ingredients, while sorbet traditionally never includes dairy or eggs, instead being primarily made from fruit juice or fruit purée.

sherbet vs. sorbet

As we just learned, sherbet typically contains only a small amount of dairy products and/or eggs. Sorbet (pronounced [ sawr-bey ]) is a creamy frozen concoction made from fruit juice or fruit purée that does not contain any dairy products or eggs. Sorbet is usually a dessert, but not always—it’s sometimes served between courses as a palate cleanser.

The words look similar because they’re ultimately based on the same root—the Turkish şerbet, from the Persian sharbat, from the Arabic sharbah, meaning “a drink.”

gelato vs. sorbet

By now, you know that gelato traditionally uses milk and cream as its main ingredients, and that sorbet primarily contains fruit juice or fruit purée and does not use dairy products or eggs. Sorbet is less creamy.

sorbet vs. ice cream

The difference between ice cream and sorbet is also based on whether or not dairy is used. Technically speaking, ice cream always contains cream and/or milk as its main ingredients, while sorbet traditionally never includes dairy or eggs, instead being primarily made from fruit juice or fruit purée.

Get the inside scoop

Here’s the final scoop: All of these distinctions are traditional and technical. As more dairy-free options become available, you’re much more likely to see many of these names applied to frozen desserts that include some nontraditional ingredients. In the case of ice cream, for example, fat sources used for the base may include ingredients like coconut milk, oat milk, or avocado.

สงวนลิขสิทธิ์ © 2025 AAKKHRA & Co.

Wand At The Ready! These Magic Words Will Cast A Spell On You

Hocus pocus, abracadabra, alakazam! These are the words we invoke when magic is at work—even if it might just be a card trick at home. While a few of these words and phrases have wholly crossed over into entertainment magic or originated there from the start (e.g., presto change-o), some of these words are rooted in older commands that called upon higher powers to influence the material world.

Whether called hexes, hymns, prayers, or simply spells, the words we invoke to communicate with a greater power to work our will all require an intangible force that can be universally described as magic. Take a look and decide for yourself if magic is real or if it’s just a bunch of hocus-pocus.

abracadabra
Perhaps one of the oldest and most recognized magical phrases, abracadabra has been around since the second century BCE and has famously appeared in the Harry Potter series. Its origins are contested as scholars posit that abracadabra emerged from Late Latin or Late Greek, reflecting the recitation of the initial letters of the alphabet (abecedary); others hypothesize that it could related to the Hebrew Ha brakha dabra, which translates as, “The blessing has spoken.” We do understand it as a word generally meant to invoke magical power. Abracadabra is classified as a reductive spell, which means it would have been written out as a complete word on the first line, then with one letter missing on the next, then another letter removed on the following line, and so forth. The idea behind reductive spells is that by making the word shorter so would a pain or illness gradually diminish.

Recorded in English in the late 1600s, abracadabra is used in incantations, particularly as a magical means of warding off misfortune, harm, or illness, and for some, is used as a nonsense word, implying gibberish in place of supposedly magical words.

alakazam
Often used as the finale word in the presentation of a grand stage illusion, alakazam is intoned as a powerful command.

While the origins of the word are unknown, according to Magic Words: A Dictionary, alakazam may have ties to a similar-sounding Arabic phrase, Al Qasam, which means “oath.” Therefore, a conjuror invoking alakazam may be calling back to a promise made by a superior being to help complete the miraculous feat they are presenting.

One of the earliest printings of alakazam in an English text is the poem “Among the White Tents,” first published in the Chicago Herald Tribune in 1888. While the poem uses alakazam in the context of entertainment and as an excited expression (“We’re goin’ to de cirkis! / Alakazam!”) there is oddly no connection to magic.

hocus-pocus
Immortalized in a ’90s cult classic family film, hocus pocus may be both invoked as an incantation and might also be used to refer to an act of trickery. For instance, one who is dismissive of fortunetelling might call the act of reading tarot cards “a bunch of hocus pocus.”

First recorded in the 1660s, hocus pocus is likely a corruption of the Latin phrase used in Catholic mass, Hoc est corpus meum (“here is my body”).

voilà
Maybe you’ve seen a magician conclude an amazing feat with this little phrase. She’ll flourish a sheet over a table and voilà, where there was no one a second ago, her whole assistant will appear!

First recorded in English between 1825–35, voilà is used as an expression of success or satisfaction, typically to give the impression that the achievement happened quickly or easily. Combined from the French words voi (“see”) and là (“there”), voilà is used to direct attention during performance magic.

open sesame
First recorded in English in the late 1700s, open sesame comes from Antoine Galland’s translation of One Thousand and One Nights. These are the magic words Ali Baba speaks to open the door of the den of the 40 thieves.

Perhaps one of the greatest magical commands to survive from folklore, open sesame today may be used as a noun to refer to a very successful means of achieving a result. For instance, you might say an MBA is the open sesame to landing a competitive job in finance.

sim sala bim
These magic words were made popular by the famous professional magician Harry August Jansen (1883–1955), also known as The Great Jansen or Dante, who used sim sala bim as the name of his touring magic show. Jansen was born in Denmark and immigrated to Minnesota with his family at age 6. Jansen used sim sala bim at the end in his show, saying the words meant, “A thousand thanks.” (They are actually nonsense syllables from a Danish nursery rhyme.) He would tell the crowd that the larger the applause, the bigger the bow, and the more thanks that the sim sala bim symbolized.

mojo
While mojo can apply to the magic influence of a charm or amulet (usually positive), the term can also refer to the influence or charm an individual can have on the people around them. A popular Muddy Waters song, “Got My Mojo Workin’,” alludes to the degree to which the singer is able to charm the women he encounters. Mojo is less of a spell and more specifically an aura of power. An Americanism first recorded between 1925–30, it is believed to draw from the West African Gullah word moco, which means, “witchcraft.” It is probably connected to Fulani moco’o, or “medicine man.”

calamaris
Similar to abracadabra in popularity and structure, calamaris is the word that Scandinavians would invoke to heal a fever. Also like abracadabra, this word was a reductive spell, meaning the full word would be written down on one line, then each successive line would have one letter removed.

miertr
In ye olden times, having a decent hunt to provide for one’s family was critical. The incantation of miertr was spoken aloud as one walked backward and then left the house. After reaching the forest to hunt, the spellcaster was advised to take three clumps of dirt from beneath the left foot and throw them overhead without looking. This will allow an individual to advance without making any noise and capture birds and animals. Definitely a process, but hopefully it led to some successful hunting.

micrato, raepy sathonich
One of the most iconic scenes in the Bible’s Old Testament is Exodus 7:8-13, which tells of Moses and his brother Aaron as they go before Pharaoh and are challenged to perform a miracle as a sign of their god. When Aaron throws down his staff, it transforms into a snake that consumes the snakes conjured by Pharaoh’s own advisors and sorcerers. According to the Semiphoras and Schemhamphorash, an occult text published in German by Andreas Luppius in 1686, micrato, raepy sathonich were the opening words Moses spoke before changing his staff into a serpent.

daimon
A variant of the word daemon, daimon [ dahy-mohn ] appears in some Greek charms and holds the meaning of a “god, deity, soul of a dead person, or genie.” In this context, it does not necessarily correspond with the Christian interpretation of a demon—it is more akin to a spirit. This word might be used in a spell to summon a daimon attendant, who would then assist the conjurer in executing a specific task. Though new practitioners should be forewarned, summoning daimons are for more experienced magic practitioners and should always be handled with care. Daimon comes from Middle English and can ultimately be traced to the Greek daimónion, meaning “thing of divine nature.”

INRI
Those who can recall their days in Catholic school know INRI are the initials typically depicted on the crucifix and represent Jesus’ title (Iēsūs Nazarēnus, Rēx Iūdaeōrum). But long ago, INRI was also written on amulets and paper to offer cures to afflictions. For instance, to stop a fever, a person might eat a piece of paper with the initials written on it, or, to stop blood loss, INRI would be written in blood on a piece of paper that was then pressed to the forehead. It’s even been stamped on stable doors to ward off the evil eye.

grimoire
We’ve got two more interesting terms for good measure. Unlike the others on this list, a grimoire is not a magical spell. Described as a “textbook of sorcery and magic,” a grimoire [ greem-wahr ] is a must-have for any would-be spellcaster. First recorded in the 1800s, this word likely arose from the French grammaire (“grammar”). Essentially, this origin word refers to a textbook and/or a set of rules to be applied to the text. For a book that has the potential to summon other beings (for better or worse) and carry out supernatural feats, any student of that book had best be willing to follow those rules to the letter!

caracteres
The unique word caracteres refers to symbols written on bits of parchment or amulets. They were used as a way of encoding powerful spells to keep them from being repeated by someone who may not be aware of their potency or seek to abuse their power. Because of this general barrier to entry, caracteres also demanded the potential conjurors devote time to studying and learning how to correctly interpret the encrypted incantations.

สงวนลิขสิทธิ์ © 2025 AAKKHRA & Co.

Highlight Words In Action : September 2025

acrimony noun: sharpness, harshness, or bitterness of nature, speech, disposition, etc.

From the headlines: European trade ministers gathered on July 14 to discuss the new U.S. tariffs, aiming to ease the acrimony between the EU and the Trump administration. While they planned potential countermeasures against the 30 percent tariffs, which they deemed “unacceptable,” they were united in favor of pursuing a negotiated agreement with the U.S. to maintain stable trade ties.

adamant
adjective: utterly unyielding in attitude or opinion in spite of all appeals, urgings, etc.

From the headlines: Mars, the maker of M&M’s, Skittles, and other popular candies, remains adamant that it will only stop using synthetic dyes in its candy if legally required. While other food companies have announced plans to phase out artificial colors in items like Lucky Charms, Jell-O, and Kool-Aid, some candy manufacturers are holding firm. They argue that natural alternatives cost more and don’t deliver the same vibrant colors.

aerial
adjective: existing, living, growing, or operating in the air

From the headlines: On June 29, Russia launched its largest aerial assault of the war in Ukraine, firing more missiles than in any previous attack since the beginning of the war in 2022. The strikes hit multiple Ukrainian cities, injuring at least a dozen people and damaging key infrastructure.

autonomous
adjective: existing as an independent entity

From the headlines: Robots competed in a fully autonomous soccer tournament in Beijing, with four teams of three humanoid robots each operating solely under AI control. Although the idea was innovative, the robots had trouble with basic actions like kicking and staying balanced. Tsinghua University’s THU Robotics team clinched the championship by scoring five goals in the final round.

bioluminescent
adjective: pertaining to the production of light by living organisms

From the headlines: A new research project will try to interpret the meaning of fireflies’ blinking. Scientists in Colorado enlisted the help of citizen observers to record videos of the bioluminescent insects at dusk. Researchers will eventually make a 3D map of where the glowing lights flash over time. While they know firefly blinks follow a deliberate pattern and are used to attract a mate, experts believe there is more to learn.

bodega
noun: a small, independent or family-owned grocery store, usually located in a densely populated urban environment

From the headlines: A recent crime spree in New York City has targeted bodega ATMs. Thefts of cash machines have increased over the past five years, and New York’s small corner stores have been hit particularly hard. Three people are suspected of stealing almost $600,000 over six months by breaking into independent convenience stores, removing their ATMs, and driving away with them in stolen cars.

contretemps
noun: an inopportune occurrence; an embarrassing mischance

From the headlines: After a contretemps between the Quebec Board of the French Language and Montreal’s transit agency, new rules grudgingly allow the use of the word “go” when cheering sports teams. The Board had objected to a Montreal Canadiens ad campaign that read “Go! Canadiens Go!” Tasked with preserving the province’s French heritage, the Board had been insisting on replacing the signs with “Allez! Canadiens Allez!”

decorum
noun: dignified propriety of behavior, speech, dress, etc.

From the headlines: La Scala has introduced a new dress code requiring attendees to “choose clothing in keeping with the decorum of the theatre.” The renowned Milan opera house is codifying its long-standing policy discouraging attire like flip-flops, shorts, and tank tops. Guests are now expected to dress with elegance, honoring both the opera house’s refined ambiance and its storied cultural legacy.

driftwood
noun: pieces of trees that are floating on a body of water or have been washed ashore

From the headlines: In rural Alaska, residents of some villages and small towns are continuing a long tradition by using driftwood for fuel and as energy-efficient siding for their homes. The pieces of wood, worn smooth by ocean waves or currents in rivers and streams, have been used this way by Indigenous Alaskans for thousands of years. Communities save money and protect the environment by reusing old trees or boards found floating in the water instead of buying lumber and logs.

eavesdrop
verb: to listen secretly to a private conversation

From the headlines: Ecologists have found that long-billed curlews and other grassland nesters routinely eavesdrop on prairie dogs to dodge predators. Sharing a habitat where hawks, eagles, foxes, and other Great Plains animals lurk, the birds capitalize on the rodents’ warning calls. After eavesdropping on these distinctive calls, the curlews and other birds crouch or camouflage themselves until the threat has passed.

emulate
verb: to imitate with effort to equal or surpass

From the headlines: Inspired by Paris’s recent success, cities across the globe are preparing to emulate its efforts to restore polluted urban rivers for public use. After a hundred-year swimming ban, Parisians can now take a dip in the once-contaminated Seine, thanks to more than a billion dollars spent on upgrades like sewer improvements and rainwater storage. Cities such as Berlin, Boston, New York, and London are developing similar plans to clean their waterways and make them safe for swimming once again.

estuary
noun: the part of the mouth or lower course of a river in which the river’s current meets the sea’s tide

From the headlines: Florida Governor Ron DeSantis signed a bill that will ban oil drilling on the Apalachicola River. The river’s estuary is home to many endangered plants and animals, including the world’s largest stand of tupelo trees. The inlet is also the most important site in the state’s oyster industry. Environmentalists and fishermen supported the bill and pushed DeSantis to sign it.

Fun fact: A Latin word meaning “boiling of the sea” is the root of estuary.

gentrification
noun: the buying and renovation of property in urban neighborhoods in a way that often displaces low-income families and small businesses

From the headlines: Protesters in Mexico City say they’re angry about gentrification caused by large numbers of foreigners moving there since 2020. Locals say they have seen formerly affordable housing prices skyrocket as the numbers of short-term rentals and expats increase. Airbnb listings in the city have exploded to over 20,000, and Americans have arrived in particularly large numbers to buy and renovate houses. In the process, they say these factors have driven up costs for everyone, including local residents.

hedonism
noun: the doctrine that pleasure or happiness is the highest good

From the headlines: Researchers say there are six traits that make someone seem “cool” to others, including extroversion, power, and embracing hedonism. An American Psychological Association study surveyed 6,000 people in 12 countries and found a sharp division between people seen as “good” versus “cool.” Being hedonistic, for example, didn’t make someone seem “good,” but focusing on one’s own happiness and pleasure was strongly associated with appearing “cool.”

kayak
verb: to travel by a traditional Inuit or Yupik canoe with a skin cover on a light framework, or by a small boat resembling this

From the headlines: Several dozen Native American teens who spent a month kayaking the length of the Klamath River reached their destination. The group paddled their long, narrow boats about 300 miles, from Oregon to California, to celebrate the removal of four dams. The waterway holds a deep significance to Native American tribes, and many of the teens learned to kayak specifically to participate in the long paddle.

larceny
noun: the wrongful taking of someone’s property or goods

From the headlines: Atlanta police have identified a suspect in the theft of hard drives holding unreleased Beyoncé songs. Setlists and plans for concert footage were also stolen when the alleged thief broke into a vehicle rented by the singer’s team. The larceny occurred during a stop on her Cowboy Carter tour.

linchpin
noun: something that holds the various elements of a complicated structure together

From the headlines: The Department of Defense will stop supplying meteorologists with satellite data, which experts describe as a linchpin of storm modeling. Forecasts for hurricanes rely heavily on this military satellite feed to track storm paths and determine when people should evacuate.

matcha
noun: finely ground tea leaf powder used to make tea or as a flavoring, or the tea made from it

From the headlines: The worldwide demand for matcha is causing severe shortages and higher prices. The bright green, grassy-flavored, powdered tea has a long history in Japan, but its popularity in other countries has exploded in recent years. Drinks and baked goods made with matcha have become wildly popular, causing Japanese tea growers to struggle to keep up with the demand.

meteorite
noun: a mass of stone or metal that has reached the earth from outer space

From the headlines: On July 16, a bidder paid $4.3 million to own a chunk of Mars. The rare Martian meteorite, which weighs about 54 pounds, is the largest meteor fragment ever found on Earth that’s known to come from the red planet. Out of approximately 77,000 confirmed meteorites, only 400 were originally part of Mars. This one, named NWA 16788, was found in the Sahara Desert after its 140-million-mile journey through space.

monastery
noun: a residence occupied by a community of persons, especially monks, living in seclusion under religious vows

From the headlines: Tens of thousands of books are being removed from a medieval Hungarian monastery to save them from a beetle infestation. The Pannonhalma Archabbey contains Hungary’s oldest library and some of the country’s most ancient and valuable books and written records. The monastery was founded 1,000 years ago by Benedictines, and about fifty monks live there today, practicing religious contemplation and solitude.

nuptials
noun: a marriage ceremony, or a social event accompanying one

From the headlines: Protesters took to the streets in Venice as Amazon founder Jeff Bezos and Lauren Sanchez held their nuptials on a Venetian island, complete with 200 guests and three days of extravagant celebrations. Locals expressed outrage, saying the event placed additional strain on a city already struggling with overtourism and environmental fragility.

offering
noun: something presented to a deity as a symbol of devotion

From the headlines: Archaeologists discovered about 2,000 pottery offerings on the Greek island of Kythnos. Historians said the clay figures, which represent children, women, and animals, had been left by devoted worshippers over the centuries. Two ancient temples once stood on the site, as well as a pit where the objects given as gifts to the gods were eventually thrown away to make room for new offerings.

parody
noun: a humorous or satirical imitation of a serious piece of writing or art

From the headlines: Weird Al Yankovic, famed for his clever musical parodies, performed to a sold-out crowd at Madison Square Garden in New York, marking his first show at the iconic 20,000-seat venue. Over his forty-year career, Yankovic has become the most recognizable figure in the parody genre, with hits such as “Like a Surgeon,” a spoof of Madonna’s “Like a Virgin,” and “I Love Rocky Road,” a playful take on “I Love Rock ‘n Roll.”

perennial
adjective: arising repeatedly or always existing

From the headlines: Joey Chestnut, the perennial champion of the Nathan’s Famous Hot Dog Eating Contest, reclaimed his crown this year after missing last year’s competition. He was sidelined in 2024 due to a sponsorship deal with a vegan meat brand, but prior to that, Chestnut had claimed victory in 16 of the past 17 contests. He still holds the world record for devouring 76 hot dogs and buns in just 10 minutes in 2021.

philanthropist
noun: someone who makes charitable donations

From the headlines: Warren Buffett said he would donate $6 billion to five charitable foundations. The businessman and philanthropist, whose net worth is approximately $145 billion, has previously given more than $50 billion to the aforementioned foundations. While Buffet’s children will decide how to give away the rest of his fortune after his death, he said that more than 99 percent of it will have to be used philanthropically.

plunder
verb: to take wrongfully, as by pillage, robbery, or fraud

From the headlines: Experts assumed that a Stradivarius violin plundered after World War II had been lost or destroyed; now it appears to have resurfaced. The 316-year-old instrument was stolen from a Berlin bank safe during the chaos at the end of the war, and the family who owned it searched for decades before giving up. An image of the looted violin, which is valued at millions of dollars, was discovered among photos of Stradivarius instruments from a 2018 Tokyo exhibition.

risotto
noun: a dish of rice cooked with broth and flavored with grated cheese and other ingredients

From the headlines: The short-grain Italian rice that’s used to make risotto is under threat from an unusual culprit: flamingos. Flocks of the birds are settling into northern Italian rice paddies instead of their usual nesting grounds. By stirring the shallow water and rooting for mollusks, the flamingos are destroying many valuable rice crops.

skittish
adjective: easily frightened or extremely cautious

From the headlines: Economists report that despite a low unemployment rate, employers are increasingly skittish about hiring, leaving many recent college graduates struggling to find jobs. Numerous tech companies, consulting firms, and federal agencies are cutting back or freezing hiring, while other industries are hesitant to increase payroll expenses. Furthermore, fewer workers are quitting, limiting job openings even more.

synthetic
adjective: pertaining to compounds formed through a chemical process by human agency, as opposed to those of natural origin

From the headlines: The J.M. Smucker Company has announced it will phase out synthetic dyes from its jams and other offerings. While many of its products are already made without artificial colors, some, including sugar-free jams and Hostess snacks like Twinkies and Snoballs, still rely on them. The company intends to use naturally sourced dyes by 2027.

tandem
adverb: one following or behind the other

From the headlines: Researchers were surprised by video evidence of animals that are normally at odds traveling in tandem. A night-vision camera recorded an ocelot traveling peacefully behind an opossum — a surprise, since ocelots usually prey on opossums. Later footage showed the opossum trailing the ocelot as it prowled. Other researchers have since reported at least three additional examples of such behavior.

© 2025, Aakkhra, All rights reserved.

CV vs. Resume: What Are The Differences?

When applying for jobs, you’ll need to prove to prospective employers that you have plenty of experience and accomplishments. In order to do this, you’ll need to show them either a CV or a resume. For American workers, these two terms are often used interchangeably to refer to a document that lists a person’s past work and major accomplishments. However, there are several differences between the two and confusing one for the other could majorly hurt your chances of landing that coveted position. To avoid disaster, let’s learn more about the difference between a CV and a resume.

What is a CV?
CV is short for curriculum vitae. A CV is a document that lists in detail a person’s education, certifications, professional background, professional expertise, publications (books, research papers, etc.), teaching experience, presentations, awards, grants, and research projects. A CV is compiled by a person applying for a job, fellowship, grant, or international career position.

Typically, a CV is tailored to fit whatever position a person is applying for, with more relevant or valuable skills and experiences prioritized over others. A CV usually begins with a person’s educational qualifications, such as university degrees, fellowships, grants, and teaching experience. Most CVs are quite long and detailed, often listing many years worth of a person’s accomplishments and published works. Depending on the person, a CV that lists all of a person’s published books, lectures, and research papers could potentially be many pages in length.

CV vs. resume
In general, CVs and resumes often contain similar information, are often both used to apply for jobs, and are both used to list a person’s experiences, skills, and accomplishments. The main differences between the two often have to do with length, what information is specifically listed, and what type of position a person is applying for. The purpose and specifics of CVs and resumes also vary depending on whether a person lives/works in the US/Canada versus another country.

When to use a CV
While it depends on the specific occasion, CVs are typically used in the United States and Canada when a person is applying for a fellowship, grant, or a job specifically in academia, medicine, or a research field. All of these are typically more concerned with a person’s credentials and expertise and thus require a detailed account of a person’s educational and research background.

Outside of the US and Canada, CVs are typically used as the standard document that a person submits when applying to a job in any field. If an American or Canadian citizen is applying for an international position, they will typically need to submit a CV rather than a resume.

When to use a resume
In general, a resume is the document that most American and Canadian companies expect from an applicant looking for a job. Besides the particular fields mentioned above, most businesses in America and Canada will ask an applicant to submit a resume rather than a CV. Generally speaking, businesses are more interested in an applicant’s career experiences, prior jobs, training, skills, and career accomplishments than academic accomplishments.

When applying for a job, most Americans and Canadians will be required to submit a resume (and possibly a cover letter). This shorter, more concise document is often preferred if a company uses automated review software or receives a large number of applications.

Most of the time, an organization will make it clear whether they require a CV, resume, or even both. If you live in Canada or the US, you should expect to need a resume most of the time. If you live anywhere else, you should expect to write a CV. If you are unsure which is needed, it is best to ask for clarification.

What is a resume?
A resume is a summary of a person’s past work experience, career accomplishments, personal accomplishments, skills, and qualifications. A resume is the document that Americans and Canadians need to have when applying for most jobs.

Like a CV, a resume is typically adjusted to fit the specific job that a person is applying for, with more important or relevant experiences and accomplishments given priority. Typically, resumes are relatively short, usually only being one or two pages in length. In general, resumes lead with job histories and career accomplishments. While CVs tend to emphasize a person’s academic credentials, a resume tends to focus much more on what a person has done in their past work and how they can use that to succeed at a new job.

In our comprehensive resume guide, we’ve provided three sample resumes you can use to follow along in this series and create your own format.

CV vs. resume
In general, CVs and resumes often contain similar information, are often both used to apply for jobs, and are both used to list a person’s experiences, skills, and accomplishments. The main differences between the two often have to do with length, what information is specifically listed, and what type of position a person is applying for. The purpose and specifics of CVs and resumes also vary depending on whether a person lives/works in the US/Canada versus another country.

When to use a CV
While it depends on the specific occasion, CVs are typically used in the United States and Canada when a person is applying for a fellowship, grant, or a job specifically in academia, medicine, or a research field. All of these are typically more concerned with a person’s credentials and expertise and thus require a detailed account of a person’s educational and research background.

Outside of the US and Canada, CVs are typically used as the standard document that a person submits when applying to a job in any field. If an American or Canadian citizen is applying for an international position, they will typically need to submit a CV rather than a resume.

When to use a resume
In general, a resume is the document that most American and Canadian companies expect from an applicant looking for a job. Besides the particular fields mentioned above, most businesses in America and Canada will ask an applicant to submit a resume rather than a CV. Generally speaking, businesses are more interested in an applicant’s career experiences, prior jobs, training, skills, and career accomplishments than academic accomplishments.

When applying for a job, most Americans and Canadians will be required to submit a resume (and possibly a cover letter). This shorter, more concise document is often preferred if a company uses automated review software or receives a large number of applications.

Most of the time, an organization will make it clear whether they require a CV, resume, or even both. If you live in Canada or the US, you should expect to need a resume most of the time. If you live anywhere else, you should expect to write a CV. If you are unsure which is needed, it is best to ask for clarification.

© 2025, Aakkhra, All rights reserved.

When Should You Capitalize Dad, Mom, And Other Family Titles?

It’s natural to want to give family members all the honors—after all, in our lives, they are some of the most important people. But are their titles capitalized? Is it proper to address mom as Mom or refer to your favorite aunt as Aunt Viv?

Should family member titles be capitalized?

Family member titles are capitalized when used as a title immediately before a person’s name (I adore Aunt Lisa) or when the title is used in place of their name (Where’s the milk, Mom?). Do not capitalize names that refer to common nouns: Those two men are fathers or This class is for expectant mothers.

When to capitalize family member titles

You should capitalize family member titles when addressing your own relatives: hello, Mother. A good rule to follow is to capitalize them if they are used as proper nouns, as in the previous example. The word Mother is a proper noun standing in for the mother’s name.

Even if a title isn’t being used to directly address someone, it is always acting as a proper noun—and should be capitalized—if it replaces a person’s name. For example, the word Dad is capitalized in the sentence I went fishing with Dad this morning even though the speaker is not talking directly to their dad. You can easily see that Dad is a proper noun if you switch in a name, as in I went fishing with Brian this morning.

Family member titles are also capitalized when used immediately before a family member’s name: I invited Uncle Chet to the baseball game. In this case, this is not a direct address. Instead, the title is being used as a proper noun similar to other respectful titles such as Miss, Doctor, Captain, or Professor.

Examples of capitalized family member titles

- Hey, Mom, where’s the remote control?
- Dad, I’m going to the store now.
- Grandma, are you joining us for dinner tonight?
- Grandad drove Audrey to the airport.
- I lived with Ma and Pa on the farm.
- Daniel will finally meet Uncle Maurice at the family reunion.

When not to capitalize family member titles

If used as common nouns, don’t capitalize, as in: We honor all mothers in May. In other words, capitalize words such as Mother, Father, Grandmother, Grandfather, Son, Daughter, and Sis when they are used in place of the person’s name. But there is one exception: they are not capitalized when they follow possessive pronouns such as her, his, my, our, your.

Whether or not a noun is a common or proper noun often depends on how the sentence is written. Make sure you know how a noun is specifically being used in a sentence so that you’ll know whether to capitalize the family member title or not. For example:

Common noun: I went to the mall with my cousin, Jenny.
Proper noun: I went to the mall with Cousin Jenny.

Examples of family member titles not capitalized

- Margo and her mom are going to the museum.
- My brother is visiting from Chicago until Sunday.
- Several fathers volunteered to help clean up the playground.
- The children interviewed their grandparents for a class assignment.

So go ahead and capitalize the names of those important family members in your life, but remember not to capitalize when using a possessive pronoun or talking about family in general.

© 2025, Aakkhra, All rights reserved.

Highlight Words In Action : August 2025

bipartisan
adjective: representing, characterized by, or including members from two parties or factions

From the headlines: The Trump administration’s decision to cut funding for the Open Technology Fund (OTF) has raised concerns among lawmakers, who see it as a vital tool against internet censorship in authoritarian regimes. Trump’s executive order effectively terminated the OTF’s budget, prompting bipartisan efforts to save the program. Advocates warn that without OTF-backed tools, many citizens and activists could lose secure communication channels, increasing their risk of surveillance and persecution.

bounty
noun: a premium or reward, especially one offered by a government

From the headlines: The United States has lifted bounties on three senior Taliban figures. The three members of the Haqqani militant network in Afghanistan were allegedly involved in planning deadly attacks during the war with the U.S., some of which killed American citizens. Until this week, the State Department had offered rewards of up to $10 million for the death or capture of the militant leaders. The move follows last week’s release of a U.S. hostage who had been held by the Taliban since 2022.

breach
noun: an infraction or violation, such as of a law, contract, trust, or promise

Jeffrey Goldberg, editor-in-chief of The Atlantic, disclosed that he was inadvertently added to a private Signal group chat used by U.S. national security officials. This unexpected breach exposed sensitive information, including details about military strikes in Yemen. The incident underscored a serious protocol violation, as national security deliberations are typically confined to secure, classified settings rather than informal messaging platforms.

cartography
noun: the production of maps, including construction of projections, design, compilation, drafting, and reproduction

From the headlines: After more than a decade of unraveling the mysteries of the universe, the space telescope Gaia has officially powered down. In its ten years of operation, Gaia meticulously mapped nearly 2 billion stars, 150,000 asteroids, and countless other celestial wonders. This cartography resulted in a precise, three-dimensional map of our solar system, which has transformed our understanding of the Milky Way.

civil liberty
noun: the freedom of a citizen to exercise customary rights, as of speech or assembly, without unwarranted or arbitrary interference by the government

From the headlines: Legal experts say surveillance methods being used by colleges and universities on their students may violate their civil liberties. When investigating vandalism connected to political protests, campus police have been using new tactics, including seizing students’ phones and laptops. They have also issued warrants based on social media posts or participation in campus protests. Civil liberties experts say these actions amount to stifling university students’ right to free speech.

confiscate
verb: to seize as forfeited to the public domain; appropriate, by way of penalty, for public use

From the headlines: A kite was briefly confiscated after it came into contact with a United Airlines plane near Washington, D.C. The aircraft landed safely at Ronald Reagan National Airport following reports of a kite hitting it. Police seized the kite from a family at nearby Gravelly Point park, but returned it later. Despite the fact that kite flying is banned there because the sky overhead is “restricted airspace,” about a dozen people had reportedly been flying kites at the park that day.

defraud
verb: to deprive of a right, money, or property by fraud

From the headlines: Hollywood writer-director Carl Erik Rinsch was arrested for defrauding Netflix of $11 million, meant for his unfinished sci-fi show White Horse. Prosecutors say he spent around $10 million on luxury purchases, including Rolls-Royces, a Ferrari, and antiques. Prosecutors also claim that he used the money to pay legal fees to sue Netflix for additional money. Rinsch has been charged with wire fraud and money laundering, while Netflix has declined to comment.

embezzlement
noun: the stealing of money entrusted to one’s care

From the headlines: French politician Marine Le Pen was convicted of embezzlement and barred from public office for five years. Le Pen, who leads the far-right National Rally party, had planned to run for president in 2027. She was also sentenced to four years in prison for spending $4.3 million in European Parliament funds on her own party expenses.

Fun fact: Embezzlement is from the Anglo-French enbesiler, “cause to disappear,” and an Old French root meaning “to destroy or gouge.”

fairway
noun: Golf. the part of the course where the grass is cut short between the tees and the putting greens

From the headlines: When golf courses close, research shows the surrounding environment improves. With declining interest in golf, nearby neighborhoods report benefits like less flooding and reduced pesticide runoff. Across the U.S., many former courses have been repurposed as nature reserves, where manicured fairways have been replaced by thriving wildflower meadows.

forage
verb: to wander or go in search of provisions

From the headlines: A new online map shows where 1.6 million edible plants grow in cities around the world. The guide, called Falling Fruit, is meant to help urban dwellers and visitors forage for food. Its open source design means people can add locations, mapping additional fruit trees, berry bushes, beehives, and plants that might otherwise go unnoticed.

franchise
noun: Sports. a professional sports team

From the headlines: A group led by Bill Chisholm has agreed to buy the Boston Celtics for $6.1 billion, making it the most expensive franchise sale in North American sports history. The Celtics, fresh off their 18th NBA title, are facing significant financial challenges under the new collective bargaining agreement, but remain favorites to repeat as champions.

geriatric
adjective: noting or relating to aged people or animals

From the headlines: The New England Aquarium in Boston has introduced a new “retirement home” for geriatric aquarium penguins, relocating six elderly birds to a designated island. While wild penguins typically live about ten years, the new aquarium houses twenty penguins in their twenties and thirties. This specialized haven ensures these aging animals receive monitoring for conditions such as arthritis and cataracts.

Fun fact: The Greek gērōs, “old,” is the root of geriatric.

iguana
noun: a large, arboreal lizard, native to Central and South America, having stout legs and a crest of spines from neck to tail

From the headlines: A recent study sheds light on how North American iguanas may have reached a remote island in Fiji. Genetic analysis suggests that these large reptiles likely traversed thousands of miles across the Pacific Ocean by drifting on makeshift rafts of fallen trees. If confirmed, this would represent the longest documented oceanic migration by any terrestrial vertebrate, apart from humans.

inaccessible
adjective: not accessible; unapproachable

From the headlines: Researchers investigating why we can’t remember being babies found evidence that those memories still exist in our brains, but are inaccessible. Scientists have long suspected that infants don’t create memories at all. A new study using MRI imaging to observe babies’ brains found that around 12 months old, they do begin storing memories of specific images. Neuroscientists are now focused on learning why these early recollections become locked away and out of reach as we grow older.

magnitude
noun: greatness of size or amount

From the headlines: A devastating 7.7 magnitude earthquake struck Myanmar, killing over 3,000 people and leaving hundreds missing. The tremors were so intense they reached 600 miles to Bangkok, where skyscrapers swayed. In response, China, India, and Russia sent rescue teams, while countries like Thailand, Malaysia, and Vietnam offered aid.

manipulate
verb: to adapt or change (accounts, figures, etc.) to suit one’s purpose or advantage

From the headlines: A cheating scandal shook the world of professional ski jumping this week. Several members of Team Norway were suspended after officials found evidence that their ski suits had been manipulated to make the athletes more aerodynamic. The team’s manager admitted to illegally adding an extra seam where the legs are sewn together; more material there was hoped to give the jumpers extra lift and allow air to flow around them more efficiently.

mush
verb: to drive or spur on (sled dogs or a sled drawn by dogs)

From the headlines: Greenland’s annual dog sledding race attracted unusual international attention when the White House said the vice president’s wife, Usha Vance, would attend. Vance canceled her trip after Greenlanders planned to protest her presence at the event. Competitors in the Avannaata Qimussersua, or “Great Race of the North,” mushed their dogs over 26 snowy miles. Henrik Jensen, a musher from northern Greenland, crossed the finish line in first place, pulled by his team of Greenlandic sled dogs.

ovine
adjective: pertaining to, of the nature of, or like sheep

From the headlines: The world’s first known case of bird flu in sheep was diagnosed in Yorkshire, England. After the H5N1 virus was found among birds on a farm, health officials also tested its flock of sheep; only one ovine case was detected. The infected sheep was euthanized to prevent the disease from spreading, and officials said “the risk to livestock remains low.”

pontiff
noun: Ecclesiastical. the Roman Catholic pope, the Bishop of Rome

From the headlines: Following the release of Pope Francis from the hospital on March 23, his lead physician said the pontiff had faced such grave danger that his medical team considered halting treatment. During his hospitalization, the pope endured two critical health crises, prompting intense deliberations over whether aggressive interventions should continue, given the potential risks to his internal organs. Ultimately, the doctors opted to pursue “all available medicines and treatments,” a decision that proved pivotal to his recovery.

populism
noun: grass-roots democracy; working-class activism; egalitarianism

From the headlines: Bernie Sanders is drawing unprecedented crowds on his “Fighting Oligarchy” tour, fueled by a message rooted in economic populism. His rhetoric resonates with disillusioned voters seeking an alternative to both President Trump and the Democratic Party. The independent senator from Vermont frequently denounces what he terms a “government of the billionaires, by the billionaires, and for the billionaires,” while chastising Democrats for failing to adequately champion the interests of the working class.

prescription
noun: a direction, usually written, by the physician to the pharmacist for the preparation and use of a medicine or remedy

From the headlines: A new trend is emerging in healthcare — doctors are now prescribing museum visits. Backed by research showing that time spent in cultural spots can boost mental health and ease loneliness, more physicians are encouraging patients to explore art galleries, theaters, concert halls, and libraries. These cultural outings are said to reduce stress, alleviate mild anxiety and depression, and even improve conditions like high blood pressure. It’s the prescription you didn’t know you needed.

pristine
adjective: having its original purity; uncorrupted or unsullied

From the headlines: Many countries are looking to Switzerland as a model, hoping to replicate its transformation of once heavily polluted rivers and lakes into some of the most pristine in Europe. In the 1960s, Swiss waterways were choked with algae and dead fish due to sewage and industrial pollution. However, over the following decades, the country made significant investments in advanced water treatment facilities. Today, nearly all of its lakes and rivers are once again pristine and safe for swimming.

prolong
verb: to lengthen out in time; extend the duration of; cause to continue longer

From the headlines: After their quick trip to the International Space Station turned out to have an unexpectedly long duration, two NASA astronauts have been safely returned to Earth. What began as an eight-day mission for Butch Wilmore and Suni Williams had to be prolonged after their Starliner spacecraft experienced helium leaks and thruster problems. The two ended up staying on the ISS for more than nine months, until two seats were available on a returning space capsule.

recruit
verb: to attempt to acquire the services of (a person) for an employer

From the headlines: As the White House cuts funding for scientific research, European countries are stepping up to recruit top U.S. scientists. Experts in climate change and vaccine safety are now eyeing job offers across the Atlantic, with France and the Netherlands boosting their budgets to hire talent for their universities.

reinstate
verb: to put back or establish again, as in a former position or state

From the headlines: On March 24, a South Korean court reinstated impeached Prime Minister Han Duck-soo. Han was returned to the government and named acting leader once his impeachment was overturned. President Yoon Suk Yeol, who was also removed from office, is still awaiting a verdict. Han and Yoon were both suspended by South Korea’s National Assembly in December.

repatriation
noun: the act or process of returning a person or thing to the country of origin

From the headlines: After several weeks of refusal, Venezuela agreed to accept repatriation flights from the United States, and the first plane carrying Venezuelan migrants back to their home country landed on March 24. About 200 people who had been deported from the U.S. were on the initial flight. Conflicts between the two countries had previously put the returns on hold.

serenade
verb: to entertain with or perform with vocal or instrumental music

From the headlines: After an incredible 70-year career, Johnny Mathis, the legendary crooner with the famously smooth “velvet voice,” has announced his retirement at the age of 89. Known for his romantic ballads, jazz classics, and soft rock hits, Mathis has been serenading audiences since his teenage years. With more albums sold than any pop artist except Frank Sinatra, his voice has been the soundtrack to countless memories.

tuition
noun: the charge or fee for instruction, as at a private school or a college or university

From the headlines: Starting this fall, attending Harvard University will cost nothing for most students. The school announced that tuition will be free for people whose families earn less than $200,000 per year. The average household income in the U.S. is $80,000. Food, housing, health insurance, and travel will also be free for less wealthy students. The University of Pennsylvania and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have adopted the same financial aid policy.

unredacted
adjective: (of a document) with confidential or sensitive information included or visible

From the headlines: The Trump administration released over 2,000 documents on JFK’s assassination, leading to a search for new insights. While the unredacted files do not dispute that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone, they reveal long-hidden details about CIA agents and operations. Attorney Larry Schnapf, who has pushed for their release, argues the disclosures highlight excessive government secrecy. He believes the unredacted documents demonstrate how overclassification has been misused by national security officials.

© 2025, Aakkhra, All rights reserved.

Why Capitalizing “Native American” Matters

These days, social media is glut with excited folks who are sending off their cheek swabs to find out just what’s hiding in their DNA. Will they find out they had an ancestor on the Mayflower? Or, maybe they have a Native American ancestor?

That would make them Native American too, right? Well, the definition of Native American is a lot more complicated than the genetics chart you get from your standard DNA testing center. You see, the term Native American refers to many, many different groups of people and not all of them identify with this term.

Before we get to that, though, let’s start with the capitalization issue.

Native American with a capital N

The lexicographers have distinguished between native Americans and Native Americans. The first version, with the lowercase n, applies to anyone who was born here in the United States. After all, when used as an adjective, native is defined as “being the place or environment in which a person was born or a thing came into being.” If you were born in the United States of America, you are native to the country. Lowercase native American is an adjective that modifies the noun American. The lowercase native American is a noun phrase that describes someone as being an American citizen who is native to the United States.

Simply being born in the good old US of A doesn’t make someone a Native American (capital N). Those two words are both capitalized because, when used together, they form what grammar experts refer to as a proper noun, or “a noun that is used to denote a particular person, place, or thing.” The term Native American is a very broad label that refers to a federally recognized category of Americans who are indigenous to the land that is now the United States (although some also extend the word’s usage to include all the the Indigenous Peoples of North and South America), and they make up at least two percent of the US population. They’re not just native to this area in the sense of having been born on American soil, but they have established American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry. As a general term, Native American is often used collectively to refer to the many different tribes of Indigenous Peoples who lived in the Americas long before the arrival of European colonizers. In reality, Native Americans are not a monolith, and they belong to many different tribes with their own cultures and languages. Note the words Native American should always be used together. It’s considered disparaging and offensive to refer to a group of people who are Native American simply as natives.

Another good example of common nouns vs. proper nouns is New York City. When it’s written with a capital C, it’s specifically referring to the area that encompasses the five boroughs. When it’s written with a lowercase c, as in a New York city, it can refer to any large metropolis located anywhere in the state.

DNA isn’t a definition

So, all you need is a DNA test, and your ancestry falls under the definition of Native American, right? Well, that’s complicated.

While the United States Department of Interior has its own rules regarding who qualifies for membership and enrollment in a tribe, the members of the tribes themselves don’t often agree with the government responsible for taking their lands and forcing them to live on reservations in the first place. Nor is there consensus among the more than 574 federally recognized tribal nations in the United States on what DNA results are required to establish heritage.

Both the United Nations and Indigenous Peoples worldwide have denounced certain attempts at tracing human origins through DNA, including the Human Genome Diversity Project.

If you feel that you have proven without a doubt that your lineage is Native American, you’ll have to turn to the individual tribe itself for the official opinion on the matter. And, even with a DNA test, you may find that you may be native American but not necessarily Native American.

What about Indian?

The department of the US federal government that oversees relations with the many Native American tribes is named the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The United States Census uses the term American Indian to refer to a person who identifies themself as a Native American. The term Indian referring to Native Americans has largely fallen out of general usage, and many Native American Peoples consider this term offensive. That being said, there are a significant number of Native American tribes and individuals that use the word Indian or the phrase American Indian to identify themselves.

Even more common, though, is a group using the specific name of their tribe—especially the name used in their own language—to identify themselves. For example, a member of the Navajo tribe may refer to their particular group as Diné.

As is often the case when it comes to language, people often have their own personal choice as to which words they prefer. If you are unsure about what words to use, the best choice is always to ask someone what they prefer.

Native to Alaska

The term Native American is sometimes used to include some Eskimo and Aleut peoples, specifically those whose families are native to the area now known as Alaska. The United States government uses the term Native Alaskan, and many other organizations prefer the term Alaska Native. Eskimo is still used as a self-designation by some people, while others consider it derogatory. Still other peoples will often prefer the specific name for their own people, tribe, or community—typically preferring a word from their own language. As is always the case, it’s best to let the person in question share their preferred terminology.

© 2025, Aakkhra, All rights reserved.